Back to: MBOSE Social Science Class 10

Describe the storming of the prison Bastille in France.

• On the morning of 14 July 1789, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. The kind had commanded troops to move into the city. Rumours spread that he would soon order the army to open fire upon the citizens who rose in protest due to shortage of bread.
• Some 7000 men and women gathered in from of the town hall and decided to form a people’s militia. They broke into a number of government buildings in search of arms. Finally, a group of several hundred people marched towards the eastern part of the city and stormed they fortress-prison, the Bastille, where they hoped to find hoarded ammunition.
• In the armed fight that followed, the commander of the Bastille was killed and the prisoners released, though there were only seven of them. Yet, the Bastille was hated by all, because it stood for the despotic power of the king. The fortress was demolished and its stone fragments were sold in the markets to all those who wished to keep a souvenir of its destruction.

Describe the political and economic conditions of France during the 18^th century.

• In 1774, Louis XVI of the Bourbon family of kings ascended the throne of France. He was 20 years old and married to the Austrian princess Marie Antoinette.
• Upon his accession the new king found an empty treasury. Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France. The cost of maintaining an extravagant Court at Versailles was very high.
• Under Louis XVI, France helped the thirteen American colonies to gain their independence from the common enemy, Britain. The war added more than a billion livres (currency) to a debt that had already risen to more than 2 billion livres.
• Lenders, who gave the state credit, now began to charge 10 percent interest on loans. So the French government was obliged to spend an increasing percentage of its budget on interest payments alone. To meet its regular expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army, the court, running government officers or universities, the sate was forced to increase the taxes.

The three important ideas of French revolution were Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. And the aim was to curb the powers of the king. Under the constitution of 1791, the following provisions were made:
1. The power should not be in the hands of only one person. It should be distributed among different institutions – legislature, executive and judiciary.
2. Abolition of feudal system: The feudal system of obligation and laws were to be abolished.
3. The constitution of 1791 gave the power to National Assembly.
4. Citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn choose the assembly. But only active citizens (men above 25 years of age who paid taxes) were entitled to vote. Rest of the men and women were passive citizens.
5. The constitution passed the right of man and citizen and the following rights were established as ‘natural and unalienable’ rights.

What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?

• The idea of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (citizen) emphasized the concept of a united community enjoying equal rights under a Constitution.
• A new French flag, the tricolor was choosen to replace the farmer royal standards.
• The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
• Mew hymns were composed, oaths taken, and martyrs commemorated all in the name of the Nation.
• Regional dialects were discouraged and French was declared as the common language of the nation.

Describe the social condition of France during the 18^th century or How was the France Society organized.

• French society in the eighteenth century was divided into three estates. Viz, The First Estate, second Estate and the Third Estate. The First Estate considered of the Clergy and the Second Estate consisted of Nobility.
• The members of the first two estates, that is, the Clergy and the nobility, enjoyed certain privileges by birth. The most important of these was exemption from paying taxes to the state. The nobles further enjoyed feudal privileges. These included feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants.
• The Third Estate consisted of three categories of people. Big businessmen, merchants, court officials, lawyers etc come in top layer. Peasants and artisans come in the middle and small peasants, landless labourers and servants come under the lowest category of people.
• Peasants made up to 90 percent of the population. However, only a small member of them owned the land they cultivated. About 60 percent of the land was owned by nobles, the Church and other richer members of the third estate.
• Peasants were obliged to render services to the lord to work in his house and fields, to serve in the army or to participate in building roads. The burden of financing activities of the state through taxes was borne by the third estate alone.

What was the ‘subsistence crisis in France? How did it arise?

• The population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789. This led to a rapid increase in the demand for food grains. Production of grains could not keep pace with the demand. So the price of bread which was the staple diet of the majority rose rapidly.
• Most workers were employed as labourers in workshops whose owner fixed their wages. But wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. So the gap between the poor and the rich widened.
• Things became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest. Shortage of food grains led to price rise, riots and death. It is called subsistence crisis, something that occurred frequently in France during the Old Regime.

Who were the groups of people who protested rising taxes and food scarcity in France? What was the result? How did the emergence of the middle class help French Society?

• In the past, peasants and workers had participated in revolts against increasing taxes and food scarcity. But they lacked the means and programmes to carry out full-scale measures that would bring about a change in the social and economic order. This was left to the middle class.
• The middle class became prosperous and had access to education and new ideas. The merchants earned their wealth through and expanding overseas trade and from the manufacture of goods.
• In addition to merchants and manufacturers, the third estate included professionals’ such as lawyers or administrative officials. All of these were educated and believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth. Rather, a person’s social position must depend on his merit.
• These were the group of people who protested rising taxes and food scarcity in France. These ideas of a society based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for all, were put forward by philosophers too.

What role did philosophers play in bringing about the France Revolution?

• These ideas of a society based on freedom and equal law and opportunities for all, were put forward by philosophers such as John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau. In his two Treaties of Government, Locke sought to disprove the doctrine of the divine and absolute right to the monarch.
• Rousseau carried the idea forward, proposing a form of government based on social contract between people and their representatives.
• In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary. This model of government was put into force in the USA, after the thirteen colonies declared their independence from Britain.
• The American constitution and its guarantee of individual rights influenced political thinkers in France. The ideas of these philosophers were discussed intensively in salons and coffee-houses and spread among people through books and newspapers.
• These were frequently read aloud in groups for the benefit of these who could not read and write. The news that Louis XVI planned to improve further taxes to be able to meet the expenses of the state generated anger and protest against the system of privileges.

Examine the factors that led to French Revolution

The war with Britain: France supported American colonies in their war with  the Great Britain from their independence. This war led to an increasing debt on the France monarchy. This necessitated imposition of new taxes on the public.

Privilege based on Birth: French Society in the eighteenth century was divided into three estates, viz. The First Estate, Second Estate and the Third Estate. The members of the first two estates enjoyed certain privileges by birth and most important of these was exemption from paying taxes to the state.

Subsistence Crisis: The high population led to rapid increase in the demand from food grains.  Production of grains could not keep pace with the demand. So, the price of the bread which was the staple diet of the majority rose rapidly. Wages did not keep pace with rising prices. It led to the Subsistence Crisis.

Growing Middle Class: A new class emerged in France because of increased overseas trade. This class was wealthy not because of birth but because of its ability to utilize opportunities. People of the middle class started raising their voice from an end to privileges based on birth.

Role of Philosophers: The ideas of a society based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for all, were put forward by philosophers such a John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau. They spread awareness through various media. Some from the privileged classes also advocated a switch to democracy. So , finally there was revolution in France.

Examine the incidents preceding the outbreak of the French Revolution

• Louis XVI, the King of France had to increase taxes for many reasons. He called a meeting of the Estates General which would pass hiss proposals for new taxes.
• Voting in the Estates General in the past had been conducted according to the principle that each estate had one vote. But members of the third estate demanded that voting now be conducted by the assembly as a whole, where each member would have one vote
• When King rejected this proposal, members of the third estate walked out of the assembly in protest. On 20 June they assembled in the hall of an indoor tennis court in the grounds of Versailles. They declared themselves a National Assembly and sworn not to disperse till they had drafted a constitution for France that would limit the powers of the monarch.
• While the National Assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a constitution, riot spread across the country. A severe winter had meant a bad harvest; the price of the bread rose, often bakers exploited the situation and hoarded supplies.
• After spending hours in the long queues at the bakery, crowds of angry women stormed in to the shops. At the same time, the king ordered troops to move into o Paris. On 14 July, the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille.
• In the countryside rumors spread from village to village that the lords of the manor has hired hands of brigands who were on their way to destroy the ripe crops . Angry peasants in several districts seized hoes and pitchforks and attached chateaux (residence of Lords).
• They looted hoarded grain and burnt down documents containing records of manorial dues.
• Continue the next answer.

What were the immediate results of the outbreak of the French Revolution?

• A large number of nobles fled from their homes, many of them migrating to neighbouring countries.
• Faced with the power of his revolting subjects. Louis XVI finally accorded recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that his powers would from now on be checked by constitution.
• On the night of 4 August 1989, the Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes. Members of the clergy too were forced to give up their privileges. Tithes ( tax imposed by the Church) were abolished and lands owned by the Church were confiscated. As a result, the government acquired assets worth at least 2 billion libres.

Why did the Third Estate walk out from the Estate General called by the King Louis XVI of France?

Voting in the Estate General in the past had been conducted according to the principle that each estate had one vote. This time too Louis XVI was determined to continue the same practice. But members of the third Estate demanded that voting now be conducted by the assembly as a whole, where each member would have one vote. (This was one of the democratic principles put forward by philosophers like Rousseau in his book The Social Contract.)

When the King rejected this proposal, members of the third estate walked out of the assembly in protest. The representatives of the third estate viewed themselves as spokesmen for the whole French nation (which demand of the third estate was rejected by the King?)

How did France become a Constitutional Monarchy?

• Faced with the power of his revolting Subjects, Louis XVI finally accorded recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that his powers would from now on be checked by a constitution.
• On the night of 4 August 1789, the Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes. Members of the clergy too were forced to give up their privileges. Tithes (tax imposed by the church) were also abolished and lands owned by the Church were confiscated.
• The National Assembly completed the draft of the Constitution in 1791. Its main object was to limit the powers of the monarch. These powers instead of being concentrated in the hands of one person were now separated and assigned to different institutions, the legislature, executive and judiciary. This made France a constitutional monarchy.

Write a short note on the Constitution of 1791 in France.

• The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected. That is, citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly.
• Not all citizens, however, had the right to vote. Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to atleast 2 days of a labourer’s wage were given the status of active citizens, that is, they were entitled to vote.
• The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens. To qualify as an elector and them as a member of the Assembly a man had to belong to the highest bracket of tax payers.
• The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as natural and inalienable rights, that is, they belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away; it was the duty of the state to protect each citizen’s natural rights.

Why were the women disappointed by the Constitution of 1791 in France? What laws did the revolutionary government introduce to improve the lives of women?

• The Constitution of 791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly which was indirectly elected. That is, citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly.
• Not all citizens, however has the right to vote. Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to atleast 3 days of a labourer’s wage were given the status of active citizens, that is, they were entitled to vote. The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens. Therefore women were disappointed by Constitution of 1791 in France.
• In the early years, the revolutionary government introduced laws that helped improve the lives of women. Together with the creation of state schools, schooling was made compulsory for all girls. Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their will. Marriage was made into a contract entered into freely and registered and under civil law.
• Divorce was made legal, and could be applied for by both women and men. Women could now train for jobs, could become artists or run small businesses. Women’s struggle for equal political rights however continued.

Why is Declaration of the Rights of Men and Citizen regarded as a revolutionary document?

• Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as natural and inalienable rights. That is, they belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away. It was the duty of the state to protect each citizen’s natural rights.
• Freedom of the press also meant that opposing views of events could be expressed. Each side sought to convince the others of its position through the medium of print. Plays, songs and festive processions attracted large number of people. This was one way they could grasp and identify with ideas such as liberty or justice that political philosophers wrote about at length in texts which only a handful of educated people could read.
• In a country where people were classified and discriminated, where laws did not protect the public, where the upper class enjoyed privileges. Rights of Man and Citizen regarded as a revolutionary document.

How did France become a republic?

• Although Louis XVI had signed the Constitution, he entered into secret negotiations with the King of Prussia. Rulers of other neighbouring countries too were worried by the developments in France and made plans to send troops to put down the events that had been taking place there since the summer if 1789.
• Before this could happen, the National Assembly voted in April 1792 to declare war against Prussia and Austria. Thousands of volunteers joined the army. This saw this as a war of the people against kings and aristocracies all over Europe.
• Political clubs like the Jacobins became an important rallying point for people who wished to discuss government policies and plan their own forms of action. Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre.
• In the summer of 1792 the Jacobins planned and uprising of a large number of Parisians who angered by the short supplies and high prices of food.
• On the morning of August 10 they stormed the Palace of the Tuileries, massacred the King’s guards and held the king himself as hostage for several hours. Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family. Elections were held.
• From now on all men of 21 years and above, regardless of wealth, got the right to vote. The newly elected assembly was called the Convention. On 21 sepetember 1792 it abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.

Who were Jacobins? What role did they play in making France a Republic

• The Jacobins were the successful Political club that became an important rallying point for people in France who wished to discuss government policies and plan their own form of action.
• The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to less prosperous sections of society. They included small shopkeepers, artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers as well as servants and daily wage workers. Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre.  (Continue from point no 4 from previous Answer)

Why is the period from 1793 to 1794 referred to as ‘reign of terror’ in France?

• The period from 1793 to 1794 referred to as ‘reign of terror’ in France because it was a period of severe control and punishment by Robespierre.
• All those whom he saw as being enemies of the republic, ex-nobles and clergy, members of other political parties, even members of his own party who did not agree with his method were arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal.
• If the court found them guilty they were guillotined.
• The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded. It was named after Dr Guillotine who invented it.
• Two important prominent persons killed by using Guillotine were the King of France Louis XVI and the Queen Marie Antoinette.

What were the measures taken by Robespierre’s Government in bringing equality in French society?

• Robespierre’s government issued laws for placing a maximum limit on wages and prices. Meat and bread were rationed. Peasants were forced to transport their grain to the cities and sell it at prices fixed by the government.
• The use of more expensive white flour was forbidden, all citizens were required to eat the pain degalite (equality bread), a loaf made of while wheat.
• Equality was also sought to be practiced through forms if speech and address. Instead of the traditional Monsieur (sir) and Madame (madam) all French men and women were henceforth Citoyen and Citoyenne (Citizens).
• Churches were shut down and their buildings converted into barracks or offices. Robespierre pursued his policies so relentlessly that even his supporters began to demand moderation. Finally, he was convicted by a court in July 1794, arrested and on the next day sent to the guillotine.
• One of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime was the abolition of slavery in the French colonies.

Why was a Directory appointed to rule France? What was the result?

• The fall of the Jacobin government allowed the wealthier middle class to seize power. A new constitution was introduced which denied the vote to non-propertied sections of society. It provided for two elected legislative councils.
• These councils then appointed a Directory, an executive made up to five members. This was meant as a safeguard against the concentration of power in a one-man executive as under the Jacobins.
• However, the Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them. The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

What set back did women’s movement face on France during the Reign of Terror?

During the Reign of Terror, the new government issues laws ordering closure of women’s clubs and banning their political activities. Many prominent women were arrested and a number of them executed.

How and when did the women in France get right to vote?

• The constitution of 1791 reduced the women to passive citizens in France and the right to vote is denied. They demanded the right to vote, to be elected to the Assembly and to hold political office.
• In order to discuss and voice their interests women started their own political clubs and newspapers. About sixty women’s clubs came up in different French cities. The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous of them.
• Women’s movements for voting rights and equal wages continued two hundred years in many countries of the world. The fight for the vote was carried out through an international suffrage movement during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
• The example of the political activities of French women during the revolutionary years was kept above as an inspiring memory. It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.

What role did women play during the revolutionary years in France?

• From the very beginning women were active participants in the events which brought about so many important changes in French Society, They hoped that their involvement would pressurize the revolutionary government to introduce measures to improve their lives.
• In order to discuss and voice their interests women started their own political clubs and newspapers. About sixty women’s clubs came up in different French cities. The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous of them.
• One of their main demands was that women enjoy same political rights as men. Women were disappointed that the Constitution of 1791 reduced them to passive citizens. They demanded the right to vote, to be elected to the Assembly and to hold political office. Only then, they felt, would their interests be represented in the new government.
• Women’s struggle for equal political rights however continued. During the Reign of Terror, the new government issued Laws ordering closure of women’s clubs and banning their political activities. Many prominent women were arrested and a number of them executed.
• The example of the political activities of French women during the revolutionary years was kept alive as an inspiring memory. It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.

What was the position of France on slavery in the 18^th and 19^th centuries?

• The colonies in the Caribbean, Martinique, Guadeloupe and San Domingo were important supplies of commodities such as tobacco, indigo, sugar and coffee. But the reluctance of European to go and work in distant and unfamiliar lands meant a shortage of labour on the plantations. So this was met by a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and Americas.
• The slave trade began in the seventeenth century in Europe. French merchants sailed from the ports of Bordeaux or Nantes to the African coast, where they bought slaves from local chieftains. Branded and shackled, the slaves were packed tightly into ships for the three-month long voyage across the Atlantic to the Caribbean. There they were sold to the plantation owners.
• Throughout the eighteenth century there was little criticism of slavery in France. The National Assembly did not pass any laws, fearing opposition from businessmen whose income depends on slave trade.
• It was finally the Convention which in 1794 legislated to free all salves in French overseas possessions. This, however, turned out to be short term measure. Ten years later Napoleon reintroduced slavery.
• Plantation owners understood their freedom as including the right to enslave African Negroes in pursuit of their economic interests. Slavery was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.
• One of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime was the abolition of slavery in the French colonies.

What changes did the revolution of 1789 bring in the everyday life of the people in France?

• The years following the revolution of 1789 in France saw many changes in the lives of men, women and children. The revolutionary governments took it upon themselves to pass laws that would translate the ideals of liberty and equality into everyday practice.
• One important law that came into effect soon after the storming of the Bastille in the summer of 1789 was the abolition of censorship. In the Old Regime all written material and cultural activities , books , newspapers, plays could be published or performed only after they had been approved by the newspapers, plays could be published or performed only after they had been approved by the censors of the King. Now the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech and expression to be a natural right.
• Newspapers, pamphlets, books and printed pictures flooded the towns of France from here they travelled rapidly into the countryside. They all described and discussed the events and changes taking place in France.
• Freedom of the press also meant that opposing views of events could be expressed, each side sought to convince the others of its position through the medium of point. Plays, songs and festive processions attracted large numbers of people. This was one way they could grasp and identify with ideas such as liberty or justice that political philosophers wrote about at length in texts which only a handful of educated people could read.

Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the peoples of the world during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

• The idea of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution. These ideas spread from France to the rest of Europe during the nineteenth century, where feudal systems were abolished.
• Further these ideas spread to different colonies of the European nations. The people of the colonies interpreted and moulded these ideas according to their needs. The principles of equality, liberty and fraternity helped to intensify the freedom movements in these countries.
• By the mid of20th century a major part of the world adopted democracy as the preferred mode of rule and the French Revolution can be termed as the starting point for this development.

Draw up a list of democratic rights we enjoy today whose origin could be traced to the French Revolution

The following fundamental rights, given in the Indian constitution can be traced to the French Revolution.

• The right to equality.
• The right to freedom of speech and expression.
• The right to freedom of exploitation
• The right to constitutional remedies.

Would you agree with the view that the message of universal right was beset with contradictions? Explain.

The major contradiction in the message of universal rights as per the French Constitution of 17891 was the total ignorance of women. All rights were given to men. Apart from that the presence of huge number of people as passive citizens, without voting rights, was like not putting into practice what you preach. In other words it can be said that although the declaration of universal rights was a good starting point but it took decades to fulfill its real goal.

Explain the role of Napoleon as an emperor of France. What are his contributions?

IN 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France. He set out to conquer neighbouring European countries, dispossessing dynasties and creating kingdoms where he placed members of his family.

Napoleon saw his role as a modernizer of Europe. He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the decimal system.

Initially, many saw Napolean as a liberator who would bring freedom for the people. But soon the Napoleanic armies came to be viewed everywhere as an invading force. He was finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815.

Many of his measures that carried the revolutionary ideas of liberty and modern laws to other parts of Europe had an impact on people long after Napoleon had left.

Describe the circumstances leading to the outbreak of revolutionary protest in France.

The outbreak of revolutionary protest in France was a culmination of social, political, intellectual and economic factors.

• Firstly, the system of estates in France was marked by gross inequalities. The clergy and nobility which were the privileged classes were exempted for paying taxes. The third estate had to bear the burden of taxes.
• Secondly, Louis XVI, the king of France, was an inefficient and a weak ruler. He believed in autocratic rule and led a life of luxury.
• Thirdly, the philosophers refuted the theory of divine right of Kings and absolute monarchy and proclaimed the doctrine of equality of men and sovereignty of the people.
• Fourthly, while the masses were dying for want of food stuffs, the members of royal family, nobles and clergy were spending money extravagantly.
• Fifthly, the economic crisis made the situation worst. People could no longer tolerate the King’s tyranny.

 Which groups of French society benefited from the revolution? Which groups were forced to relinquish power? Which sections of society would have been disappointed with the outcome of the revolution?

The common man called the 3^rd Estate was benefited from the revolution. The nobles and the clergy who had privilege of power were forced to relinquish power.

The moderates who wanted constitutional Monarchy were disappointed with the outcome of the revolution.

Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the peoples of the world during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

The legacy of the French Revolution for the people of the world:

French Revolution is the milestone in the history of mankind. It inspired revolutionary movement in almost every country of Europe and South America.

• It inspired social and economic changes in Europe. It inspired the Germans, Italians and Austrians to overthrow their oppressive regimes.
• It spread new idea among the people. The Revolution inspired struggling nations of Asia and Africa.
• It initiated mass   movement and installed the spirit of nationalism among the people.
• The idea of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution.
• The French Revolution gave the term ‘nation’ its modern meaning.
• The ideas of sovereignty were also given by the French Revolution. It means that a nation recognizes no law or authority above its own.
• The French Revolution motivated and inspired the revolutionary movement of the former French colony of Haiti.

Tipu Sultan and Raja Ram Mohan Roy were the two Indians leaders, who responded to the ideas of the Revolution.

Summarise the attributes of a Nation, as Renan understands them, why, in his views, are nations important?

• Ernst Renan was a French philosopher, who outlined the attributes of a nation which are as follows.
• A nation is not formed by a common language, race, religion or territory.
• To form a nation, social capital, common glories and deeds of the past and common will are necessary. A nation is culmination of a long past of endeavors, sacrifice and devotion.
• Nation is a large-scale solidarity, its existence is a daily plebiscite and its inhabitants have the right to be consulted.
• The existence of a nation is not only a good thing, but also a necessity.
• A nation has never any real interest in annexing or hoolding on to a country against its will. Nations are important because existence of the nation is a guarantee of liberty. Liberty would be lost if the world had only one la and only one master.

Describe the political ends that List hopes to achieve through economic measures.

• A customs union known as Wolverine was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German States.
• The union removed internal impediments and summed up 32 currencies into two.
• The aim of the union is to bind the Germans economically into a nation by strengthening the nation materially through its protection of interests externally and stimulating its internal productivity. It must be awakened and national sentiments should be raised through a fusion of individual and state interests.

What did Liberal Nationalism stand for?

• A liberal nationalist were educated middleclass people who stood for freedom of the individual and equality of all before the law.
• Politically it emphassised government by consent.
• They wanted representative government through parliament who will rule according to constitution.
• Though liberalists stood for political equality, voting rights was limited.
• In the economy field, liberalism stood for freedom of markets and abolisation of restruction on trade.

How did culture play an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe? Explain with four examples?

Culture played an important role in creating the idea of ‘nation in Europe:

• The development of nationalism didn’t come about only through wards and territorial expansion.
• Culture such as art, poetry, folktales, and dance played an important role in creating the idea of nation.
• It helped to express and forge nationalist feelings.
• Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment.
• Romantic artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of reason and science.
• They focused more on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
• They aspired to create a sense of shared collective heritage as the basis of a nation.
• Romantics like Johann Gottfried Herder believed that German culture was alive among the common people-das Volk. The idea of nation was popularized through the folk culture of songs, poetry and dance.
• It helped a lot to carry the modern nationalist manage to large audiences who were mostly illiterate.

Discuss the importance of language and popular tradition in the creation of National Identity?

Language played a very important role in the creation of national Identity. Grimm brothers, namely Jacob and Wilhelm Grim, born in Hanau, a German city, write ‘Fairy Tales’ which became popular among children and adults. They brought the folktales to the public through their creations in German Language which encouraged the feelings of the people to achieve freedom of the press. The Grimm brothers tried to oppose French domination that was a danger to German culture. They did a lot of work for the development of German Language and creation of German Nationality in reference to identity. They also published a 33 volume dictionary of German language which was also a wider effort to oppose French domination. Poems, music, stories, folk songs, folk dances etc are means that create the idea of nation. Besides it they help to express and form national feelings through the creation of shared heritage and common culture. Collective identity among the French people was created by the French revolutionaries by discouraging local dialects and encouraging French. Use of vernacular language in Poland became helpful in dissemination of modern nationalist feelings among the large illiterate population. When Polish was forcefully removed from schools and Russian was imposed everywhere after Russian occupation, the people saw the use of Polish language as a sign of national resistance,

What are the conditions that were viewed as obstacles to the economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes during the 19th century in Europe?

• Following were the conditions that were viewed as obstacles for economic growth and exchange by the new commercial classes during 19th century:-
  There was an enormous increase in population
• Feudal system, serfdom and manorial dues were taxing for the poor landless peasants.
• There were many state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods, capital and people across different places.
• There was no freedom of to peasants, artisans, workers and market for new businessmen.
• For example, in the German confederation of 39 states set up by Napolean, all the states had different system of weights and measures and different currencies. Since duties were charged on the basis of weight and measurement of the goods, the process of levying duties was very time consuming.

Describe the cause of the Silesian weavers’ uprising. Comment on the viewpoint of the journalist

The cause of the ‘Silesian Weavers’ Uprising was due to the cheating of the weavers by the contractors. In 1845, the weavers raised a revolt against the contractors as the contractors drastically reduced their payments.

The view point of the journalist Wilhelm Wolff for this uprising was – a large crowd of weavers reached the house of the contractor and demanded higher wages. They were not treated well, so a group of the crowd entered the contractor’s house forcibly and destroyed the furniture, window panes and plundered it. The contractor fled with his family to a neighbor village but did not get shelter.

After 24 hours, he returned back with army and eleven weavers were shot dead. This shows that the viewpoint of the journalist was based against the weavers and in favour of the contractor. He did not understand the misery of the weavers properly.

Explain why the decade of the 1830s is known as ‘great economic hardship’ in Europe. Give Reasons.

The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe.

• There was enormous increase in population all over Europe.
• The ratio of population was larger than that of employment generations. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
• Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports.
• The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest fed to widespread pauperism in town and country.
• Peasants found it difficult to sell their harvests and pay their revenue.

 Briefly trace the process of German unification.

• The process of German unification is as follows:
• In Germany, people from the middle class section of society began coming together and forming political associations. These associations decided to elect a parliament.
• Therefore, on May 18, 1848, the Frankfurt Parliament was elected with 831 members.
• The parliament was convened in St. Paul Church and there a constitution for Germany was drafted.
• When offered the crown to make Germany a constitutional monarchy, Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia rejected it and united with other kings to oppose the parliament.
• As the parliament majorly constituted of the middle class, they began ignoring the demands of the peasants and artisans which made them lose the widespread support. Also, the monarchy continued to grow stronger and began becoming powerful with every passing day. Eventually, the parliament was dismissed and once again, monarchy took over.
• After this, Prussia began leading the struggle for unification, mainly headed by Otto von Bismarck.
• Finally, in 1871, after winning three wars against Austria, Denmark and France, Germany completed the process of unification. King Kaiser William I of Prussia was finally crowned as the king of unified Germany.

What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?

Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him.

• Napoleon abolished all privileges based upon birth. He established equality before law and introduced the right to property.
• He simplified the administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
• He removed guild restrictions in the towns.
• He improved the system of transport and communication.
• Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen were given extensive freedom.
• He introduced uniform laws, standardized weights and measures and introduced a common national currency. Such measures facilitated the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

However, these administrative changes did not satisfy the people for long as Napoleon’s rule brought with it increased censorship, taxation, and forced entry into the French armies.

 Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals? Discuss.

BY the 1848 Revolution of the Liberals, we mean, that revolution led by the educated middle class of Europe. Events of February 1848, in France, brought about the abdication of the monarchy and a republic based on universal male franchisee was formed.

Political Social and economic ideas supported by the liberals in 19^th century were.

Political: Men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.

Economic: Practices such as serfdom and bonded labour were abolished.

Social: within the liberal movement large numbers of women had participated actively over the years. Women had formed their own political association, founded newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly.

Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.

The best examples of how nations developed over the nineteenth century are Germany and Italy.

Germany

• In Germany, people from the middle class section of society began coming together and forming political associations. These associations were given the responsibility of electing a parliament.
• Therefore, on May 18, 1848, the Frankfurt Parliament was elected with 831 members.
• The parliament was summoned in St. Paul Church and there they drafted the constitution for Germany.
• When offered the crown to make Germany a constitutional monarchy, Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia rejected it and joined other kings to oppose the parliament.
• As the parliament majorly constituted of the middle class, they began ignoring the demands of the peasants and artisans which made them lose popular support. Also, the monarchy continued to grow stronger. Eventually, the parliament was dismissed and once again, monarchy took over.
• After this, Prussia began leading the struggle for unification, mainly headed by Otto von Bismarck.
• Finally, in 1871, after winning three wars against Austria, Denmark and France, Germany completed the process of unification. King Kaiser William I of Prussia was crowned as the king of unified Germany.

Italy

• During the nineteenth century, Italy consisted of seven states, out of which only Sardinia-Piedmont was an Italian princely state.
• Italian as a language was not uniform across the region, and witnessed various dialects.
• Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian revolutionary, began a programme to unite Italy. He also formed a secret society named Young Italy in order to unite people.
• The uprisings in 1831 and 1848 failed. Then, it was Count Camillo e Cavour who lead the struggle for the movement. He helped Italy in entering a diplomatic alliance with France, which helped in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
• In 1860, populations of South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies were taken over. Finally, in 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was crowned as the king of united Italy.

How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

The history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe because:

• In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution.
• The evolution of nationalism in Britain was a different case compared to the rest of the Europe. The British rules were divided into 4 main ethnic nationalists, – such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
• England was emerging as an economic power hence because of Industrialization. Due to its financial muscle England was able to dominate the other nationalists of the British Isles.
• This resulted in the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain in which England was the dominant Partner, and people of other ethnicities were subdued by the English culture.

Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

• The Balkans was a region of geographical & ethnic variations comprising modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as the slavs.
• A large part of the areas of the Balkans was under the control of Ottoman Empire.
• The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region explosive.
• The population of Balkan also began claiming their histories as independent nations and started demanding independence.
• The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other’s and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others. Each power – Russia, Germany, England, and Austria Hungary was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans and extending its control over the area. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.

This made the Balkan region prone to fierce conflicts.

The rise of nationalism in Europe initiated with the Spring of Nations in 1848. Nationalism was the ideological impetus that, in a few decades, transformed Europe. Rule by monarchies and foreign control of territory was replaced by self-determination and newly formed national governments. Some countries, such as Germany and Italy were formed by uniting various regional states with a common “national identity”. Others, such as Greece, Serbia, Poland, Romania and Bulgaria, were formed by uprisings against the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire.