Back to: MBOSE Social Science Class 10

Explain the illustration that appeared on the coverage of music book produced by E.T Paul?

In 1900, A popular music publisher ET Paul produced a music book that had a picture on the cover page announcing the “Dawn of the Century”. At the center of the picture id goddess like figure, the angel of progress bearing the fag of the new century”. At the center of the picture is a goddess like figure, the angel of progress bearing the flag of the new century? She is gently perched on a wheel with wings, symbolizing time. Her flight is taking her into the future, floating about, behind her, are the signs of progress, railway, camera, machines, priniting press factory.

Explain the print –“2 magicians’ that appeared on trade magazine 100 years ago?

It shows 2 magicians. The one at the top is Aladdin from the Orient who built palace with his magic lamp. The one at the bottom is the modern mechanic who with his modern tolls weaves a new magic, build bridges, shops, towers, and high rise buildings. Aladdin is shown as representing the East and the past, the mechanic stands for the West and modernity.

What do you understand by Proto Industrialization?

PROTO indicates the first or the early form of something. Even before factories began to dot the landscape in England and Europe, there was large scale industrial production for an international market. This was not based on factories. It was made by artisans, craftsmen in large scale at their homes. Many historians now refer to this phase of industrialization as proto-industrialization.

Features of Proto Industrial system.

• It was a decentralized system of production. Merchants were based in towns, but the work has done mostly in the countryside.
• It was a system which was controlled by the merchants, and the goods were produced by a vast number of producers working within their family farms.
• Under this system, the work was done by involving the whole family.
• The workers remained in the countryside, and continued to cultivate their small plots

Why was it so difficult for merchants to set up business towns that they had to turn up to country side in 17^th and 18^th Centuries?

In the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries, merchants from the towns in Europe began moving to the countryside, supplying money to peasants and artisans, persuading them to produce for an international market. With the expansion of the world trade and the acquisition of colonies in different parts of the world, the demand for goods began growing. But merchants couldn’t expand production within towns. This was because

Urban crafts and trade guilds were powerful. These were associations of producers that trained craftspeople, maintained control over production, regulated competition and prices and restricted the entry of new people into the trade.

Rulers granted different guilds the monopoly right to produce and trade in specific products. It was therefore difficult for new merchants to s et up business in towns. So they turned to the countryside.

What are crafts and trade guilds?

 URBAN CRAFTS: They were powerful producers as they trained craftsperson, and maintained control over production.

TRADE GUILDS: They controlled new traders not to start trade as this would affect them in the production.

Functions of trade guilds: These were association of producers

• That trained craftspeople.
• Maintained control over production.
• Regulated competition and prices.
• Restricted the entry of new people into the trade.

Why did poor peasants and artisans living in the countryside agree to work for merchants?

This was when open field system was disappearing and the extensive field system was predominating, i.e. land was available and anyone could practice it for production. But as the people multiplied, the open field system began sinking. The rich land owners started embedding the open fields.

Cottagers and poor peasants they had earlier depended on community grounds for survival, collecting firewood, seeds, vegetables, grass and fodder. With the disappearance of common land, they have to look for alternative sources of income.

By working for the merchants, they could remain in the countryside and continue to cultive their small plots income from proto-industrialization supplement their shrinking income from cultivation. It is also allowed them a fuller use of their family labour resources.

How did a close relationship develop between towns and countryside during proto industrialization? A close relationship developed between the towns and the country side. Merchants were based in town but the work was done mostly in the countryside. Vendors accommodated crude materials and cash to workers and craftsman in the wide open who thusly delivered for them. They developed for the in their little fields to meet the necessities of the dealers. A merchant purchase wool from a wod stapler and carried it to the spinners, the yarn that was spun was taken in subsequent stages of production to weavers, fullers and then to dyers. The finishing was done in London before the export merchant sold the cloth in the international market. London came to be known as finishing center before the export merchants sold the cloth in the international market

Spinning Jenny: The Spinning Jenny is a multi-spindle spinning frame, and was one of the key developments in the industrialization of textile manufacturing during the early Industrial Revolution. It was invented in 1764 or 1765 by James Hargreaves in Stanhill, Oswaldtwistle, and Lancashire in England. This machine speeded up the spinning process and reduced labour demand. By turning one single wheel a worker could set in motion a number of spindles and spin several threads at the same time. It was first used in Woolen Industry.

Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny as it could spin many spindles with one wheel. This increased productivity and

The fear of unemployment made workers hostile to the introduction of new technology. When the Spinning Jenny was introduced in the woolen industry, women who survived on hand spinning began attacking the new machines. This conflict over the introduction of the jenny continued for a long time.

Cotton Mills: Richard Arkwrigt created the cotton mill. Till this time, cloth production was spread allover the countryside and carried out within village households. But now, the costly new machines could be purchased, set up amd maintained in the mill. Within the mill, all the processes were brought together under one roof and management. This allowed a more careful supervision over the production process, a watch over quality, and the regulation of labour, all of which had been difficult to do when production was in the countryside.

How rapid was the process of Industrialization? Does industrialization mean only the growth of factory industries?

• The most dynamic industries in Britain were clearly cotton and metals. Growing at a rapid pace, cotton was the leading sector in the first phase of industrialization upto 1850s. After that the iron and steel industry lead the way. With the expansion of railways, in England form 1840s and in the colonies from the 1860s, the demand for iron and steel increased rapidly. By 1873, Britain was exporting iron and steel worth 77 million pounds, double the value of its cotton export.
• The new industries could easily displace traditional industries. Even at the end of the nineteenth century, less than 20% of the total workforce was employed in technologically advanced industrial sectors. Textiles was a dynamic sector, but a large portion of the output was produced not within factories, but outside, within domestic units.
• The pace of change in the “traditional” industries was not set by steam powered cotton or metal industries, but they didn’t remain entirely stagnant either. Seemingly, ordinary and small innovations were the basis of growth in many non-mechanized sectors such as food processing building, pottery, glass work, tanning furniture marking and production of implements..
• Technological changes occurred slowly. They didn’t spread dramatically across the industrial landscape. New technology was expensive and merchants and industrialists were cautions about using it. The machines often broke down and repair was costly. They were not effective as their inventors and manufacturers claimed.

How many steam engines were there in England? In which industry were they used?

At the beginning of nineteenth century, there were 321 steam engines all over England. Out of these, 80 were in cotton industries, and the rest in mining, canal works. Steam engines were not used in any of the other industries till much later in the nineteenth century. So , even the most powerful new technology, that enhanced the productivity of labour manifold was slow to be accepted by industries.

Historians now have come to increasingly recognize that the typical worker in the mid- nineteenth century was not a machine operator but the traditional craftsperson and labourer. Explain.

Yes, this statement is true for more reasons than one. Although in the 19^th century, many innovations and inventions had revolutionized the way in which industries functioned, especially the textile industry, the traditional workers and craftsmen still dominated the production. The many new machines and innovations were not wholly accepted by the industrialists due to various reasons. Some of the reasons are:

• The installation, commissioning and maintenance of these machines was expensive.
• Most industrialists or capitalists were not convinced about the workings of these new machines and so did not encourage new machinery.
• The new machines required frequent repair and this cost the industrialists a heavy amount.
• Although there was an influx of workers to cities, a large number of them still lived in rural communities and continued to contribute to the gross production.
• Due to all the reasons mentioned above, traditional craftsmen and workers still occupied an important place in British economy.

Explain the availability of labour in Victorian Britain? Why wasn’t there any shortage of labour?

In Victorian Britain, there was no shortage of human labour. Poor peasants and vagrants moved to the cities in large number in search of jobs, waiting for work. When there is plenty of labour ,wages are low. Si industrialists had no problem of labour shortage or high wage costs. They didn’t want to introduce machines that got rid of human labour and required large capital investments.

Why was there a demand for human labour in England?

In many industries, the demand for labour was seasonal. Gas works and breweries were especially busy through the cold months. So they needed more workers to meet their peak demand. Book-binders and printers, catering to Christmas demand, too needed extra hands before December. At the waterfront, winter was the  time that ships were, repaired and spruced up. In all such industries where production fluctuated with the season, industrialists usually preferred hand labour, employing workers for the season.

A range of products could be produced only with hand labour. Machines were oriented to producing uniforms, standardized goods for a mass market. But the demand in the market was often for goods with intricate designs and specific shapes. In mid nineteenth century Britain, 500 varieties of hammers were produced and 45 kinds of axes. These required human skill, not mechanical technology.

In Victorian Britain, the upper dresses- the aristocrats and the bourgeoisies- preferred things produced by hand. Handmade products came to symbolize refinement and class. They were better finished, individually produced and carefully designed. Machines made goods were for export to the colonies.

Why did industrialists in Britain use manual labour while in America machines came to be used increasingly by producers.

In countries with labour shortage, industrialists were keen on using mechanical power so that the need for human labour can be minimized. This was the case in nineteenth century America. Britain, however, had no problem hiring human hands. The wages were low and the labour was economical in Britain.

Explain the life of workers in England?

Seasonal work:  In most of the industries, the demand for labour was seasonal. The actual possibility of getting a job depended on existing networks of friendship and kin relations.

Low wages : The workers were getting very low wages. At the best of times till the mid-nineteenth century, about 10% of the population was extremely poor.

Women workers:  Factories employed large number of women. With technological development women gradually lost their industrial jobs.

Problem of Housing: Most of the workers were living in slums. Factory or workshop owners did not house the migrant workers.

Source of Fun and Leisure:  For the poor workers the streets often were the only place for rest, leisure and fun. The working poor created spaces of entertainment wherever they lived.

Name the night shelters that were built for job seekers to spend their nights?

Many job seekers had to wait weeks , spending nights under bridges or in night shelters. Some stayed in Night Refuges that were set up by private industrialists, others went to the Casual Wards maintained by  the Poor Law authorities.

After the 1840s, where did workers get better opportunity of employment?

After the 1840s, building activity intensified in the cities, opening   up greater opportunities of employment. Roads were widened, new railway stations came up, railway lines were extended, tunnels dug, drainage and sewers laid, rivers embanked. The number of workers employed in the transport industry doubled in the 1840s and doubled again in the subsequent 30 years.

How was foreign trade from India conducted before the age of machine industries.

Before the age of machine industries silk and cotton from India dominated the international market in the textiles. (1)Coarser Cotton was produced in many countries but often came from India. Armenian and Persian traders took goods from Punjab to Afghanistan, Eastern Prussia and central Asia.

(2) Bales of fine Textiles were carried on the camel back via the North West frontier, through mountain passes and across deserts.

(3) A vibrant sea trade operated through the main pre-colonial ports. Surat on the Gujarat coast connected India to the gulf and Red sea ports, Masulipatanam on the Coromandal coast and highly in Bengal had the trade links with the Southeast Asian ports.

Why did shift from old ports ( surat and Hoogly) to new ones (Bombay and Calcutta) signify?

In 1750 the trade channels which were dominated by Indian Merchants was cracking down and the European companies gradually gained power  by securing a variety of concessions from local courts, then the monopoly rights to trade. The credit that had financed the earlier trade began drying up, and the local bankers slowly went bankrupt. While Surat and Hooghly decayed, Bombay and Calcutta grew. This shift from the old ports to the new ones was an indicator of the growth of colonial power. Trade through the new ports came to be controlled by European companies, and was carried in European Ships. In  the years of seventeenth century, the gross value of trade that passed through Surat had been Rs 16 million. By the 1740s, it had slumped to Rs 3 million.

Why was it difficult for British East India to procure regular supplies of goods for export in the beginning?

Before establishing political power in Bengal and Carnatic in the 1760s and 1770s, the East India Company had found it difficult to ensure a regular supply of goods for export. Portuguese as well as the local traders compted in the market to secure woven doth. So the weaver and supply merchants could begin and try selling the produce to the best buyer. In their letters back to London, Company officials continuously complained of difficulties to supply and the high prices.

How East India Company did established control over export trade in textiles?

Once the East India Company established political power, it could assert a monopoly right to trade. It proceeded to develop a system of management and control that would eliminate competition, control costs, and ensure regular supplies of cotton and silk goods. This it did through a series of steps.

The company tried to eliminate the existing traders and brokers connected with the cloth trade, and established a more direct control over the weaver. It appointed a paid servant called gomastha to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and examine the quality of the cloth.

It prevents Company weavers from dealing with other buyers. One way of doing this was through the system of advances. Once an order was placed, the weavers were given loans to purchase the raw material for their production. Those who took loans had to hand over the cloth they produced to the gomastha. They could not take it to any other trader. They lost their bargaining power.

Who were Gomsthas? What was their function?

The East India Company tried to eliminate the existing traders and brokers connected with cloth trade, and establish a more direct control over the weaver. It appointed a paid servant called the gomastha to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and examine the quality of cloth.

Name the sea routes that connected India with Asian Countries.

• A vibrant sea trade operated through the main pre-colonial ports.
• Surat on the Gujarat coast connected India with the Gulf and the Red Sea ports.
• Masulipatnam on the Coromandel Coast and Hooghly in Bengal had trade links with the southeast Asian ports.

Explain the relationship between weavers and gomasthas.

The relationship between weavers and gomasthas was very strained. In many weaving villages there were reports of clashes between weavers and gomasthas. Earlier supply merchants had very often lived within the weaving villages, and had a close relationship with the weavers, looking after their needs and helping them in the times of crisis. The new gomasthas were outsiders with no long term social link with the village. They acted arrogantly, marched into villages with sepoys and peons, and punished weavers for delays in supply – often beating and flogging them. The weavers lost the space to bargain for prices and sell to different buyers. The price they received from the Company was miserably low and the loans they had accepted tied them to the company. In many places in Carnatic and Bengal, weavers deserted villages and migrated, setting up looms into other villages where they had some family relation. Elsewhere, weavers along with village traders revolted, opposing to the company and its officials. Over times many weavers began refusing loans, closing down their workshops and taking to agriculture labour.

What were the problems that were faced by Indian weavers with growth of cotton textile industries in Manchester/England?

• As cotton industries developed in England, industrial groups began worrying about imports from other countries. They pressurized the government into impose import duties on cotton textiles so that Manchester goods could sell in Britain without facing any competition from outside. In course of time, they also forced the government to put a ban on entry of India’s textiles into England. Thus Indian weavers lost export market.
• At the same time, industrialists persuaded the East India Company to sell British manufacturers in Indian markets as well. Exports of British cotton goods increased dramatically in the early nineteenth century. Produced by machines at lower costs, the imported cotton goods were so cheap that weavers could not easily compete with them. They were better in quality and cheaper in process than Indian textiles. They lost their domestic market.
• By the 1860s, weavers faced a new problem. They could not get sufficient supply of raw cotton of good quality. When the American Civil War broke out and cotton supplies from the US were cut off, Britain turned to India. As raw cotton exports from India increased, the price of raw cotton shot up. Weavers in India were starved of supplies and forced to buy raw cotton at exorbitant prices. In this situation weavers couldn’t pay.

Major problems faced by the Indian Cotton Weavers.

• Their export market collapsed.
• The local market shrunk.
• Increase in price of raw cotton and shortage of Cotton.
• Difficulty of weavers to compete with the imported machines that made cheaper cotton products.
• Factories in India also began producing on large scale cheaper machine made goods with which Indian weavers could not compete.

Name the industries that developed in India in the second half of the nineteenth century.

• The first cotton mill in Bombay came up in 1845 and it went into production two years later. By 1862, four mills were at work with 94,000 spindles and 2150 looms.
• Around the same time, jute mills came up in Bengal, the first being set up in 1855 and another one 7 years later in 1862.
• In North India, the Elgin Mill was started in Kanpur in the 1860s and a year later the first cotton mill of Ahmadabad was set up.
• By 1874, the first spinning and weaving mill of Madras began production.

Name the early entrepreneurs who had established their industry in our country. From where did they get the capital for their industries?

• The British in India began exporting opium to China and took tea from China to England. Many Indians participated in this trade by providing finance, procuring supplies and shipping consignments. In Bengal, Dwarkanath Tagore made his fortune in the China trade and established six joint-stock companies in the 1830s and 1840s.
• In Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata built huge industrial empires in India. They accumulated their initial wealth partly from exports to China and partly from raw cotton shipments to England.  Seth Hukumchand, a Marwari business who set up the first Indian jute mill Calcutta in 1917, also traded with China, So did the father and grandfather of the famous industrialist GD Birla.
• Capital was accumulated through other trade networks. Merchants from Madras traded with Burma, Middle East and East Africa. Other trading activities included carrying goods from one place to banking, transferring funds between cities and financing traders. When opportunities opened up, many of them set up factories. However, Indian traders were barred from trading with Europe in manufactured goods and had to export raw materials and food grains required by the British. They were also gradually edged out of the shipping business.

How did the colonial control over trade affect the position of Indian merchants?

The colonial control over Indian trade tightened, the space within which Indian merchants could function became increasingly limited. They were barred from trading with Europe in manufactured goods, and had to export mostly raw materials and food grains- raw cotton, opium, wheat and indigo- required by the British. They were also gradually edged out of the shipping business.

Name 3 European managing agencies. Describe their role in industrial development in India till First World War?

The 3 European managing agencies were Bird Heiglers & Co., Andrew Yule and Jardine Skinner and Co. till the First World War; European Managing Agencies in fact controlled a large sector of Indian industries. Three of the biggest ones were the 3 mentioned above. These agencies mobilized capital while the European Agencies made all the investment and business decisions. The European merchant industrialists had their own chambers of commerce which Indian businessmen were allowed to join.

From where did the workers come to work in factories?

• Factories needed workers. With the expansion of factories, this demand increased. In most industrial regions, workers came from the districts around. Peasants and artisans who found no work in the village went to the industrial centers in search of work. Over 50% of workers in the Bombay Cotton industries in 1911 came from the neighboring districts of Ratangiri, while the mills of Kanpur got most of their textile hands from the villages within the district of Kanpur. Most often mill workers moved between the village and the city returning to their villages during harvests and festivals.
• As news of employment spread, workers travelled great distances in hope of work in the mills. From the United Provinces, for instance, they went to work in the textile mills of Bombay and in the Jute mills of Calcutta.
• Getting the job was very difficult, even when mills multiplied and the demand for workers increased. The numbers seeking work were always more than the jobs available. Entry into the mills was also restricted. Industrialists usually employed a jobber to get new recruits. Very often the jobber was on old and trusted worker. He got people from his village, ensured them jobs, helped them settle in the city and provided them money in times of crisis. The jobber therefore became a person with some authority and power. He began demanding money and gifts for his favour and controlling the lives of workers.

Who was a Jobber?

Industrialists usually employed a jobber to get new recruits. Very often the jobber was an old and trusted worker in the industry. He got people from his village, ensures them jobs, helped them settle in the city and provided them money in time of crisis. The jobber therefore became a person with some authority and power. He began demanding money and gifts for his favour and controlling the lives of workers.

Explain the peculiarities of Industrial growth in India.

• European Managing Agencies, which dominated industrial production in India, were interested in certain kinds of products, i.e., tea and coffee plantation. They established tea and coffee plantation, acquired lands at cheap rates from the colonial government; and they invested in mining, indigo and jute. Most of these were products required primarily for export trade and not for sale in India.
• When Indian businessmen began setting up industries in the late nineteenth century, they avoided competing with imported goods in the Indian market. Since yarn was not an important part of British exports into India, the early cotton mills in India produced course cotton yarn rather than fabric. When yarn was imported it was only of the superior quality. The yarn produced in Indian spinning mills was used by handloom weavers in India or exported to china.
• As the Swadeshi Movement gathered momentum, nationalists mobilized people to boycott foreign cloth. Industrial groups organized themselves to protect their collective interests, pressurizing the government to increase tariff protection and grant other concessions. From 1906, moreover, the export to Indian yarn to china declined since produce from Chinese and Japanese mills flooded the Chinese market. So industrialists in India began shifting from yarn to cloth production. Cotton piece goods production in India doubled between 1900 to 1912.
• Yet, till the First World War, Industrial growth was slow. That was created a dramatically new situation.  British mills, was busy with production to meet the needs of the Army, Manchester imports into India declined. Suddenly Indian mills had a vast home market supply. As the war prolonged, Indian factories were called up to supply needs, jute bags, cloth for army uniforms, tents and leather boots, horse and mule saddles and a host of other items. New factories were set up to old one ran multiple shifts. Many new workers were employed and everyone was made to work longer hours. Over the war years, industrial production boomed

Manchester could never recapture its old position in the Indian market. Explain

• Unable to modernize and compete with the US, Germany and Japan, the economy of Britain crumbled after the war.
• Cotton production collapsed and exports of cotton cloth from Britain fell dramatically.
• Within the colonies, local industrialists gradually consolidated their position substituting foreign manufacturers and capturing the home market.

How did small scale industries predominate in earlier part of twentieth century?

• While factory industries grew steadily after the war, large industries formed only a small segment of the economy. Most of them about 67% in 1911- were located in Bengal and Bombay. Over the rest of the country, small scale production continued to predominate. Only a small proportion of the total industrial labour worked in registered factories. 5% in 1911 and 10% in 1931. The rest worked in small workshops and household units, often located in alleys and bylanes, invisible to the passer by 80% of the worker worked in these units.
• Handicrafts production actually expanded in the twentieth century. This is true even in the case of the handloom sector that we have discussed. While cheap machine made thread wiped out the spinning industry in the nineteenth century, handloom cloth production expanded steadily, almost trebling between 1900 and 1940.
• This was partly because of technological changes. Handicrafts people adopt new technology if that helps them improve production without excessively pushing up costs. So, by the second decade of the   twentieth century we find weavers using looms with a fly shuttle. This increased productivity per worker, speeded up production and reduced labour demand. By 1941, over 35% of handlooms in India were fitted with fly shuttles in regions like Travancore, Madras, Mysore, Cochin, Bengal; the proportion was 70-80%. There were several other small innovations that helped weavers improve their productivity and compete with the mill sector.
• Certain groups of weavers were in better position that others to survive the competition with mill industries. Amongst weavers some produced course cloth while others wove final varieties. A) The demand for the varieties bought by the well to do was more stable. The rich could buy these even when the poor starved. Families didn’t affect the sale of Banarasi or Baluchari sari. Moreover mills could not imitate specialized weavers. Saris, with woven borders or the famous lungis and handkerchiefs of madras, could not be easily displaced by mill production. b) Other weavers wove coarser varieties. The courser cloth was brought by the poor and its demand fluctuated violently. In times of bad harvests and famines, when the rural people had little to eat, and their cash income disappeared, they could not possibly buy the cloth.
• Weavers and other craftspeople, who continued to expand production through the twentieth century, didn’t necessarily prosper. They lived hard lives and worked long hours. Very often the entire household-including all women and children had to work at various stages of production process. But they were not simply remnants of past times in the age of factories. Their life and labour was integral to the process of industrialization.

Explain the network of export trade that was prevalent in India?

1. Persian and American merchants purchased fine varieties of Indian cotton from Punjab, and took it to the markets of Afghanistan, eastern Persia and central Asia.

2. Bales of fine textile materials were stored on the back of camels and transported through the north-west frontier, through the rugged mountain passes and the dry dessert conditions.

3. Pre-colonial ports like Surat connected India to the Gulf and Red Sea ports whereas Masulipatam and Hoogly connected India to the Southeast Asian trade destinations.

4. A wide array of Indian merchants and bankers were actively participating in this export trade network. Some merchants from Madras traded Burma while others had links with the Middle East and East Africa. There were yet other commercial groups, but they were not directly involved in external trade. They operated within India, carving goods from one place to another, banking money, transferring funds between cities, and financing traders.

5. They linked the ports to the hinterland and facilitated trade to the foreign destinations.

What did the Indian Manufacturers do to promote the sale of the indigenous goods?

The Indian manufacturers took a lot of measures to promote the sale of their products. They advertised the products at a commercial level. When Indian manufacturers advertised, the nationalist message was clear and loud. If you care for the nation then but the products that Indians produced. Advertisement became a vehicle of the nationalist message of the Swadeshi.

What is the importance of advertisement in the marketing of the goods?

• The Manchester made cloth carried a label with ‘Made in Manchester’ written in bold. This assured the buyers of the quality of the cloth.
• The British manufacturers used images of Indian Gods and Goddesses on the labels. It symbolized the divine approval for the commodity’ It also created familiarity with the Indian buyers.
• Manufacturers got calendars printed with the images of Gods and the advertisement of their products advertisements make products appear’ desirable and necessary. The calendars were seen on the walls of hotels, tea shops, households, etc. These are used even by people who could not read.
• (Images of historical characters and heroes from the past were also displayed on calendars thus sending the message that the product was as worthy of respect as were these respectable characters.
• The Indian manufacturers printed the image of Bharat Mata and a nationalist message on the labels. They also printed ‘Made in India’ on the labels thus appealing to the nationalist sentiments. Most of the baby products carried the image of Lord Krishna to appeal to the religious sentiments.

 What types of goods/ products were produced by the machines?

1.Machines were oriented to producing uniforms, standardizing for a mass market.

2.Machine made goods were for the export to the colonies.

What techniques were adopted by the Manchester Industrialists to sell their goods in India?

• When Manchester Industrialists began selling cloth in India, they put labels on the cloth bundles. The label was needed to make the name of the place of manufacture and the name of the company familiar to the buyer. The label was also a mark of quality. When the buyer saw ‘MADE IN MANCHESTER’, writing in bold on the label, they were expected to feel confident about buying the cloth. But the labels did not carry only words, and texts, they also carried images and were very often beautifully illustrated.
• Images of Indian Gods and Goddess regularly appeared on the labels. It was as if the association with Gods gave divine approval to the goods being sold. The imprinted image of Krishna and Saraswati was also intended to make the manufacture from a foreign land appear somewhat familiar to the Indian people.
• Manufacturers were printing calendars to popularize their products. Unlike newspapers and magazine, calendars were used even by people who couldn’t read. They were hung in the tea shops and in poor people’s home just as much as in offices and middle class apartments. And those who hung the calendars has to see the advertisements, day after day, through the year. In these calendars, once again, the figures of Gods were being used to sell new products.
• One way in which new consumers are created is through advertisements. Advertisements make products appear desirable and necessary. They try to shape the minds of people & create new needs.

Dwarkanath Tagore – made his fortune in China trade before he turned to industrial investment, setting up six joint stock companies in the 1830s and 1840s. Tagore’s enterprises sank along with those of others in the wider business crises of 1840s, but later in the nineteenth century many of the China traders became successful nationalist. He believed that India would develop through westernization and industrialization. He  invested in shilling, ship building, mining , banking , plantation and insurance.

Dinshaw Petit , Jamsetjkee Tata and Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy : In Bombay, Parsi like DinshawPetit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata built huge industrial empires in India and accumulated their initial wealth party from exports to China, and partly from raw cotton shipments to England. Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy was the son of Parsi weaver. Like many others of his time, he was involved in China trade and Shipping. He owned a large fleet of ships but competition from English and American Shippers forced him to sell his ships by 1850s.

 Seth Hukumchand : a Marwari businessman who set up the first Indian Jute mill , Calcutta  in 1917, also traded with China. So did the father and grandfather of the famous industrialist GD Birla.